ANTH281.1001--Exam#1: Study Notes--UNR SPRING 2023

Exam 1 Study Guide (month/day/slide#) (02/02/01-19) Lexeme – the abstract 'word' entry that exists in the grammar and mind of the speaker: drive, drives, driving, driven, drove, driver (02/02/05) Affixes – morphemes that are attached to the word to give meaning (02/02/07) Bases (stems) – what the affix attaches to (02/02/07) Roots –the central morphological unit that cannot be analyzed/broken down any further (02/02/07) Prefix–morphemes that are attached to the beginning of the base or root (02/02/08) Suffix – morphemes that are attached to the end of the base/root (02/02/08) Circumfix – morpheme that is attached to the beginning and end of the base/root (02/02/08) Infix – morphemes that are inserted into the middle of the base/root (02/02/08) Derivational Morphology – the addition of affixes that changes the lexical class or grammatical category of the root reject (verb) > rejection (noun) (02/02/12) Inflectional Morphology – the addition of affixes that changes the shape of the root, but not the lexical of class or grammatical category. (verb tense (02/02/12) Grammatical Categories– noun, verb, number, case– if they are populated by individual 'lexemes' or by smaller affixes (02/02/13) Syntax– How words, lexemes, and grammatical categories are ordered and put together to create meaningful utterances (02/02/14) “Language is discrete and recursive” –Every language operates using a finite set of linguistic elements; finite set of rules to create infinite linguistic possibilities (02/02/15) Syntax symbols and tree-diagramming rules (02/02/16-19) (02/07/01-16) Semantics – the study of how meaning is achieved Lexical Semantics: meaning that is inherent to the individual word Compositional Semantics: how parts of a sentence/utterance come together to produce meaning (02/07/06) Pragmatics– how meaning is derived in addition to and beyond an utterance's compositional meaning and truth value. This includes: How the content of the utterance is packaged to produce meaning Other meanings that are associated with individual elements of the statement Meanings that can only be derived from the context of the utterance Other assumptions exist that allow for these interpretations to occur (02/07/06) Presupposition – the kind of assumptions or shared knowledge that speakers of a language automatically make to understand the statement (02/07/11) Implicatures – what is implied in a specific utterance. NOTE- this implication is not explicitly said, yet understood (02/07/12) Inferences– any additional conclusions that one can derive from the utterance or statement based on what is not explicitly said, and the associated implicatures from it (02/07/12) Deictics /Deixis – Linguistic utterances whose meaning and truth value are rooted based on the context of the utterances Meaning and truth cannot be derived independent of the utterance. (02/07/13) Pragmatics – an attempt to begin to move beyond just the basics of the grammar of the language (02/07/15) Extra-linguistic cures–We get a lot of our information from other sources: Other speakers, Gaze/ line of vision, What is grabbing our attention, Gestures Mood, subjunctive, Tone/Intonation- can be played around with to produce sarcasm. (02/07/14) (02/09/01-16) Myth about Linguistic Function – (02/09/06) #1: User-focused functionalism Primary goal of sending and understanding a message Intentions must be clear and interpretation must be direct Western- centered/scientific/academic bias I.e. all language is and must be clear and accurately represent some objective truth about the world. #2: Social-structure functionalist perspective of language Social-structures and differences maintained by linguistic acts Kin terms Titles/honorifics Ritual speech Take this a step further--> Language exists as an autonomous system to reproduce everything and itself Society/social distinctions reproduced through language's Existence Linguistic system maintains itself through constant use System impervious to outside influence. #3: Language is epiphenomenal to life. Language just exists to reflect/represent the world that we live in BUT there is no reason why it does. Secondary caused by the first– JOHN AUSTIN– Speech Act Theory – (John Austin)--Any linguistic utterance/moment of speech is a kind of social action As "action-like" as making, creating, destroying, etc. (02/09/13) Performance Utterances – Magical incantations Blessings Curses Promises Apologies Declarations/ baptismal moments EVEN basic, declarative utterances are performative (02/09/16) Felicity Conditions/Infelicitous– Performative utterances only make sense if a set of "felicity conditions" are fulfilled Based on time, context, manner, background of speaker, etc. If such conditions are not fulfilled, the speech act is considered "Infelicitous" Performative act is not achieved. (02/09/15) (02/14/01-19) Language as Performance– All language DOES something Performs of act Need to think of language as a kind of action Acts and makes the world we live in (02/14/06) Language as Dialogic –Dialogue--> 'cross-talk' (Ancient Greek) The idea that every linguistic utterance does not stand alone or isolated in our social world Linguistic utterances travel across time, space, context, and get recycled Same with linguistic acts Whether we are aware of it or not, everything we do/say is referencing an earlier iteration of the same linguistic act (02/14/07) Interactive frame: context, message, contact, addressee, addresser, code (00/00/00) ROMAN JACOBSON– Referential function–Refers to the direct context of the situation Basic meaning–Gives information (02/14/11) “Sales are up 3% this quarter.” Emotive function – Conveys information about the state of the addresser. (02/14/12) “I'm excited about the new car I bought!” Conative function– Utterance directed towards the addressee Imperatives Warnings Rebukes Comments/judgements (02/14/13) “Can you show John where to find the paper clips?” Phatic function – An utterance that is about the type of connection or contact between addresser or addressee Checking if a connection is made An utterance that could create a connection i.e. greetings (02/14/15) “Do you hear me now?” Metalingual function – Commentary on the “code” Commentary on how the code was delivered Commentary on how that code was interpreted Talk about talk Meanings Reported speech (02/14/15) clarifying ambiguity, and describing deliberate word play Poetic function – A focus on the message Language for the sake of language Don’t only want to convey information A commentary on how that language is used, manipulated, interpreted, etc. I.e. the artistry of language, and what that says about the structure of language, and how it is socially recognized and manipulated for a particular effect (02/14/16) “It is a far, far better thing that I do, than I have ever done.” True/False: All 6 functions exist in each linguistic utterance BUT- in any context or moment, one or some functions may become more salient than others (02/14/17) INTERVIEWS– (02/16/01-16) Interviews– Ethnographic considerations –Varying class backgrounds Varying racial and ethnic backgrounds Different educational and training backgrounds (02/16/4) Participant Observation – Who is talking with who? How are they talking? When do they talk? Any specific moments or events of note What are daily activities/life like? Goal--> to get enough description to flesh out the ethnographic aspects of that setting, place, or group (02/16/08) Conversation Analysis – Writing a transcript Looking for patterns about how people talk and communicate Look for central themes of conversation and how they are discussed (02/16/09) Transcript – Writing a transcript Looking for patterns about how people talk and communicate Look for central themes of conversation and how they are discussed Semi-structured vs. structured interview (02/16/09) Text/material analysis – can look at newspapers, other kinds of media, journals, archives, etc. (02/16/14) Experimental methods – include match-guise tasks, matching tasks, word Association tasks (02/16/14) Ethical considerations – Review any precautions to protect vulnerable populations Review the steps needed to keep participants anonymous Review basic methodology to ensure that it is not abusive/extractive/etc. IRB (Institutional Review Board) Vulnerable populations (02/16/16) Patterned speaking Gesture Interview Research methods in Linguistic Anthropology Quantitative vs. Qualitative research Participant observation Surveys/Questionnaires Experimental Methods Matched guise tests Function Analyzing data Ethical considerations (02/21/01-17) Linguistic relativity –What about language helps us understand our world? Are we only able to see/understand/express the world in certain ways based on the language we know? (02/21/17) Different languages do not alter your basic cognitive functions and capacities Linguistic relativity is more than just words (lexicon) A lexicon for any language can be expanded over time for various reasons Individual words do not necessarily say anything about the relationship between grammatical structure and how things are expressed What is considered a word varies between languages John Lucy: Language-in-general, Linguistic structures, Language use Semantic domains Grammatical categories Spatial frames of reference Shape vs. material composition Franz Boas –Language as a Reflection of Culture Language and linguistic practice tends to reflect basic cultural practices of a group or community A valuable source of data towards understanding cultural patterning BUT- language did not constrict or prevent different kinds of thought processes Arguing against linguistic and racio-deterministic arguments of time (02/21/14) Edward Sapir – Language as Unconscious Patterning Behind Social Experiences Each shared, predefined linguistic variety expresses a unique, subjective experience NOT- a bounded worldview that is different from the rest INSTEAD- each language/linguistic variety reflects and expresses the experiences and perspectives of individuals who share and use that variety THEREFORE: Must understand linguistic structure and how it’s used in practice because it predisposes interpretations of our social world Must also see the kinds of co-patterning between language and social/cultural practice (02/21/15) Benjamin Lee Whorf – Language Structure As Habitual Practice The grammatical structure/categories within a language shapes how things are habitually expressed. This habitual expression can be connected to culturally distinct habitual behaviours. e.g Time between Standard Average European (SAE) vs. Hopi SAE- Temporal words are categorized according to tenses (Past, Present, Future). Each tense blends into the other on a continuum Hopi- Time expressed in terms of validity (is the statement true), and modality (the nature of the action that is being talked about) Both temporal axes produce meanings that can be equated to things that have been completed in the past and present, or actions that have yet to take place. But they are not organized according to discrete 'TENSES' like in English BUT- we cannot say that Hopi has no 'past tense' and therefore in Hopi one cannot talk about things in the past. (02/21/16) Linguistic Determinism– language and its structures limit and determine human knowledge or thought, as well as thought processes such as categorization, memory, and perception. More bullshit category: Prescriptive Grammar– how to use the English language, what forms they should utilize, and what functions they should serve Descriptive Grammar– elements and rules of a language as it is actually used Phonetics – the study and classification of speech sounds. Phonology – study of different sounds and the way they come together to form speech and words Phonemes– any of the perceptually distinct units of sound in a specified language that distinguish one word from another, Morphology – the study of words and their parts. Morphemes, like prefixes, suffixes and base words, are defined as the smallest meaningful units of meaning. Syntax – sets forth a specific order for grammatical elements like subjects, verbs, direct and indirect objects Voiced/Voiceless– Unvoiced consonants are made just with air, no, uhh, sound from the vocal cords. For example, hh, sh, tt, pp. Voiced consonants do have voice in them, uhh, like: mm, bb, zh. Pulmonic consonants – consonants that depend upon an egressive (outward-flowing) air stream originating in the lungs IPA symbols– phonetic Lexicon – the vocabulary of a person, language, or branch of knowledge. Interactive frame: context, message, contact, addressee, addresser, code Linguistic determinism– the concept that language and its structures limit and determine human knowledge or thought, as well as thought processes such as categorization, memory, and perception. Linguistic relativity– the proposal that the particular language we speak influences the way we think about reality, forms one part of the broader question of how language influences thought. The strong version of the hypothesis, which is called linguistic determinism, holds that language determines thinking, or as Stuart Chase writes in the foreword to Whorf’s collected works: ‘All higher levels of thinking are dependent on language’ Kaye, Alan S. “LINGUISTIC RELATIVITY.” Key Ideas in Linguistics and the Philosophy of Language, edited by Siobhan Chapman and Christopher Routledge, Edinburgh University Press, 2009, pp. 116–19. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3366/j.ctt1g09vvm.45. Accessed 27 Feb. 2023. (Page 118) The milder version of the Whorfian hypothesis is labelled ‘linguistic relativity’. This states that our native language influences our thoughts or perceptions. (118) cryptotype Term coined in the 1930s by Benjamin Lee Whorf for a *covert category revealed only when forms are combined with some specific overt form. One of his examples is a group of verbs with similar meanings (... … Cryptotype - Oxford Reference Thus, the French may really think of and treat tables as feminine, and the Navajo may consider news to be round. Whorf himself suggests this kind of interpretation when he claims that we read action into all words that are verbs, and, since all English sentences contain verbs, into every statement. "We therefore read action into every sentence, even into 'I hold it' . . . Rosch, Eleanor. “LINGUISTIC RELATIVITY.” ETC: A Review of General Semantics, vol. 44, no. 3, 1987, pp. 254–79. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/42579365. Accessed 27 Feb. 2023. (page 259) Linguistic Determinism–in its kernel form, thought is limited by language. What it doesn’t say is what that “language” is, a “lexicon” a FORTRAN, some binary code? What about what a young child uses for grammar compared to some PhD at MIT? At least the child is free to associate non-grammatical sentences in order to communicate whereas the MIT professor is limited to a strict prescriptive grammar that pushes the limits of that determinism onto his very ability to think. The linguistic scientist describes language systems at several levels: the phonological level of distinctive sound elements and their permissible combinations; the morphological level of elementary meaningful forms (morphemes) and their combination to make words; the syntactic level of sentence creation from words. (page 1) Brown, Roger, and Jean Berko. “Word Association and the Acquisition of Grammar.” Child Development, vol. 31, no. 1, 1960, pp. 1–14. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/1126377. Accessed 28 Feb. 2023. transitive verbs are more closely equivalent than verbs in general. Such popular adult word associations as bright-dark are not only semantic anto- nyms; they are also adjectives having highly similar privileges of occurrence. Bright has more sentence contexts in common with dark than with such another adjective as virtuous. (page 4) Verbs in English may be subdivided into transitive and intransitives. Intransitive verbs can appear without an object (e.g., "We laugh") while transitives almost always occur with some sort of object (e.g., "We sent something”) (page 5) Count Nouns (C.N.): table, house, foot, needle, apple, doctor. (singular, plural “a”) Mass Nouns (M.N.): milk, water, sand, sugar, air, cheese. (cannot be counted) Adjectives (Adj.): dark, soft, cold, white, sweet, hard. Transitive Verbs (T.V.): to send, to bring, to find, to take, to hit, to invite. (object) Intransitive Verbs (I.V.): to skate, to come, to live, to laugh, to stand, to walk. (no object) Adverbs (Adv.): quickly, slowly, sadly, Derivational morpheme– “in English to ‘table a motion’ and to ‘foot a bill’ ” (a/the) table (noun) > to table (verb) (page 5) Derivational Morphology – the addition of affixes that changes the lexical class or grammatical category of the root reject (verb) > rejection (noun) (02/02/12) (exam guide-page 1) Homogeneous versus heterogeneous– – one of six parts-of-speech: (page 6) the count noun mass noun transitive verb intransitive verb adjective Adverb Word Association Test he needs an appreciation of the achievements and potentialities of dialectology, the branch of linguistics that deals systematically with variations in linguistic practice within a given speech community (page 112) McDavid, Raven I. “Dialectology and the Classroom Teacher.” College English, vol. 24, no. 2, 1962, pp. 111–16. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/373744. Accessed 28 Feb. 2023. low-back vowels, such as those in horrible Florida oranges or borrow tomorrow's sorrow (page 113) metalinguistics–, "[He] played for society dances before turning to the blues," a prepositional phrase (to the blues) is obliga- tory; on the other hand, in "[He] turned left at the foot of the hill," the prepositional phrase 'at the foot of the hill' is option (page 406) basis by any theory so far proposed; and as regards derivational morphology, it has been positively shown that there are patterns which resist generative formulation despite the fact that they are recognized and analyzed 'taxonomically,' so to speak, by native speakers (page 407) Matthews, P. H. “The Inflectional Component of a Word-and-Paradigm Grammar.” Journal of Linguistics, vol. 1, no. 2, 1965, pp. 139–71. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/4174899. Accessed 28 Feb. 2023. How does the derivational model fit into this analysis? The long-winded investigation ignores a possible physiological reason why English, derived from Latin roots, went from Sing, to sang, to sung instead of sing, singed, having singed; adding an affix on the end instead of a phoneme in the middle to change the root. somewhere in the middle, without changing the grammatical category. The fine line between derivational and inflectional is illustrated here. - refers to the unique semantic reciprocity which unites such word-pairs as bite-teeth, lick-tongue, bark-dog:' one bites only with the teeth, licks only with the tongue, only a dog barks (page 202) Waterman, John T. “Benjamin Lee Whorf and Linguistic Field-Theory.” Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, vol. 13, no. 3, 1957, pp. 201–11. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3629146. Accessed 28 Feb. 2023. n language. This is Weisgerber's "intellectualized 'tween-world," placed like a pane of colored glass between man and reality, forc- ing him to accept a relativisitic interpretation (page 204) me the extreme position attribut ed by Landesman to Cassirer. All that is required to make the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis meaningful is the assumption that, in some cases at least, syntactical distinctions do influence perception; not that "there is no formed world until linguistic skills are attained (page 338) Swanson, J. W. “Landesman on Linguistic Relativity.” The Review of Metaphysics, vol. 15, no. 2, 1961, pp. 336–39. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20123884. Accessed 1 Mar. 2023. Jo-Jo Koo– Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767-1835) Thus, the true nature of language is such that it cannot be fully captured in terms of its perceivable products, nor can it, a fortiori, be fully explained by means of the phonetic, grammatical, or lexical rules that are specified by the linguists who investigate such linguistic products (page 13) The Expressivist Conception of Language and World: (philarchive.org) “only a dead makeshift of scientific analysis.” Humboldt’s expressivist conception of language and world is also, according to Lafont, thereby unavoidably relativist because speaking different natural languages always implies that there are different worldviews. (page 16) Holism, linguistic idealism, expressivism.. Epistemological, theory of knowledge– a fortiori, idiolect Rather, the actual determinacy of a worldview emerges only as a result of the activity of using a language. (page 20) Jon Mills– , many lexical items are found that are language and culture specific. (page 2) Microsoft Word - Idiom in 20th Century Cornish.doc (ed.gov) Isomorphism, structure similarity, the English noun, 'book', is always translated into Cornish as levar. But levar may be translated into English as either 'book'or 'volume' (page 3) Colours are not objective, naturally determined segments of reality. There is divergence when a lexeme, contrasted with the lexical units of the target language, must be divided into several sub-meanings. A lexeme is stripped of any inflectional endings. Thus play, plays, played, and playing >> play Neologism, newly coined word– Anisomorphism– absence of exact correspondence calque or loan translation is a word or phrase borrowed from another language by literal word-for-word or root-for-root translation. Types Distinct from Our Own: Franz Boas on Jewish Identity and Assimiliation LEONARD B. GLICK Hampshire College https://anthrosource.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdfdirect/10.1525/aa.1982.84.3.02a00020 Who’s Who in the Age of Boas: The Sponsors of Anthropological Papers Written in Honor of Franz Boas (1906) Herbert S. Lewis University of Wisconsin-Madison https://www.berose.fr/article2087.html?lang=fr Franz Boas out of the ivory tower Lee D. Baker Duke University, USA https://people.duke.edu/~ldbaker/documents/baker20.pdf Page 17 franz boas duels